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Abstract: Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) represent a critical technology for direct conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy through the Seebeck effect, offering substantial potential for waste heat recovery and sustainable energy generation. This comprehensive review examines the fundamental physics of thermoelectric effects, materials science advances, structural design principles, and diverse applications spanning automotive waste heat recovery to deep space exploration. Recent developments in nanostructured materials have achieved dimensionless figure of merit (ZT) values exceeding 2.4, while segmented TEG modules demonstrate conversion efficiencies up to 12%. Modern research emphasizes novel alloys, nanostructured composites, and flexible materials to enhance energy conversion efficiency across diverse environments. Applications in automotive systems show fuel savings of 3-5%, and radioisotope thermoelectric generators continue enabling multi-decade space missions. This review synthesizes current knowledge on TEG technology, identifies key challenges, and projects future research trajectories for next-generation thermoelectric systems.References
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